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PREVENTION SERVICES
INTRODUCTION
Many youths who are juvenile offenders experience numerous other problems along with delinquency. For instance, research demonstrates that many juvenile offenders suffer from both long-term mental health and substance abuse problems, with a high percentage also suffering from conduct disorders (Huizinga, Loeber, Thornberry, and Cothern, 2000). In addition, many juvenile offenders are exposed to violence as victims or witnesses. Recent research suggests that these problems are significantly greater for juvenile offenders than for other youths, although their prevalence among youths in the juvenile justice system is largely unknown.
Mental Health Problems
Mental health problems in adolescents are reportedly widespread, with as many as 5 percent of adolescents suffering from serious emotional disturbances (Center for Mental Health Services, 1997). Many such youths are at risk for delinquency. Although the link between mental health disorders and juvenile delinquency has not yet been firmly established, it has been demonstrated that mental health disorders and delinquency co-occur in youths (Elliott, Huizinga, and Menard, 1989). For example, Breda (1995) found that among youths with serious delinquency problems, more than 80 percent had "clinically significant psychopathology." Several other studies provide evidence that supports this connection (Fagan, 1991; Hollender and Turner, 1985; McManus et al., 1984).
Substance Abuse
It has been estimated that, each year, of the youths who come into contact with the juvenile justice system, 225,000 suffer from a diagnosable alcohol abuse or dependence disorder, and 95,000 may suffer from a diagnosable substance abuse or dependence disorder (Cocozza, 1992). Moreover, the results of the Program of Research on the Causes and Correlates of Delinquency strongly supports the relationship between drug use and serious delinquent behavior. Specifically, the Denver, Pittsburgh, and Rochester studies all found a statistically significant relationship between persistent delinquency and persistent drug use for both males and females (Huizinga, Loeber, Thornberry, and Cothern, 2000).
Exposure to Violence
Powerful evidence exists that childhood exposure to violence-as a victim or witness-as associated with subsequent behavioral disorders. Children's exposure to violence has been significantly linked to increased depression, anxiety, anger, alcohol and drug abuse, decreased academic achievement, and increased violent behavior (Kracke, 2001). Several studies have found that delinquent youths experience strikingly higher rates of childhood abuse and neglect than the general population. For instance, the Rochester Youth Development Study researchers compared a group of maltreated and non-maltreated juveniles in terms of the extent and frequency of their involvement in delinquency (Kelley, Thornberry, and Smith, 1997). The researchers found, among other things, that: 1) youths who had been victims of childhood abuse or neglect were significantly more likely than nonvictims to be delinquent (i.e., to have an official record); 2) compared with youths who had not experienced childhood maltreatment, maltreated youths self-reported significantly greater involvement in delinquent and violent behavior; and 3) as the frequency and severity of childhood maltreatment increased, there were significant increases in the frequency of subsequent delinquency.
THEORETICAL CONTEXT
Despite these alarming trends, many at-risk children never become delinquent or experience behavioral disorders. For example, in the Program of Research on the Causes and Correlates of Delinquency, the majority of female drug users were not serious delinquents (Huizinga, Loeber, Thornberry, and Cothern, 2000). In addition, most maltreated youths do not become delinquent (Wieibush, Freitag, and Baird, 2001).
What keeps these children from succumbing to problem behaviors? Some researchers suggest that intervening factors may protect youths from the downward spiral of delinquency. In specific reference to maltreated children, Kelley and colleagues suggest that the provision of effective services is a key factor in protecting youths from these disastrous outcomes (Kelley, Thornberry, and Smith, 1997). Moreover, a study by Yoshikawa (1994) synthesizing the research on the effectiveness of early childhood programs in preventing delinquency states that successful interventions have two core features: 1) high quality early childhood services which protect children from the risk factors; and 2) family support services which provide parents with information on parenting skills and other services. It is imperative that these services be aimed at juveniles who are at risk of delinquency as well as adjudicated juveniles in order to block further penetration into the system and prevent further increasing the risk for delinquency (Bilchik, 1998).
Consequently, prevention services programs are designed to identify problems and intervene early on the behalf of young children who are at risk of developing emotional or behavioral problems because of physical or mental stress or abuse. While there is no specific model for prevention services programs, prevention services strive to promote healthy childhood development and to address the problems of substance abuse, neglect and maltreatment, and mental stress as well as a host of other behavior problems. The goal of these programs is to prevent problem behaviors by providing intensive and coordinated behavioral health services (i.e., mental health services, substance abuse prevention and treatment services, and comprehensive services) to at-risk youth and their families. A primary focus of these programs is to improve the accessibility, delivery, and quality of services for young children through the expansion of existing partnerships among service providers in key areas such as early childhood education/development, health, mental health, child welfare, family support, substance abuse intervention, domestic violence/crisis intervention, law enforcement, courts, and legal services.
EVIDENCE OF IMPACT
The theory of prevention science is grounded in the scientific understanding of the importance of the earliest years of life in establishing the essential foundation for healthy social, emotional, and cognitive development. Recent research on brain development illustrates that what happens very early in a child's life forms the core of his or her later capacity for learning, socialization, and success (Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, 2000). As a result, prevention efforts must begin when children are very young. Starting Early Starting Smart (SESS) is a prevention services-oriented program based on these principles. While not specifically a violence prevention initiative, SESS is a services integration program designed to increase access and utilization of needed behavioral health services, thereby improving child and family outcomes and resiliency. The emphasis is on providing and coordinating prevention and early intervention activities for young children as well as their adult caregivers and siblings to strengthen the entire family.
A rigorous evaluation of SESS produced early findings demonstrating that SESS programs: 1) increase access to, and use of, needed services by participating families; 2) help participating families strengthen the positive ways in which they guide and support the development of their young children; 3) decrease drug use among caregivers when the programs target caregivers in need of substance use treatment; 4) strengthen positive interaction between participating caregivers and infants in the early months of life; and 5) strengthen the development of participating young children in ways that are crucial for future school success (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, N.d.).
In summary, juvenile offenders tend to experience many other problems in addition to delinquency. Prevention services programs are designed to identify these problems and intervene before the problems worsen. Moreover, some evidence suggests that early identification of needs and delivery of prevention services can be an effective tool in averting problem behaviors. Unfortunately, research and experience demonstrate that, in general, the services available through the juvenile justice system to alleviate these problems are inadequate. Thus, to effectively help at-risk and adjudicated juveniles, we must increase the number and quality of prevention services programs in the community.