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BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT
INTRODUCTION
For more than a quarter century, public schools in the United States have been heavily concerned with discipline. Researchers and educators are finding, however, that in order to curb student discipline problems, schools need not only the traditional disciplinary policies but also positive behavioral instruction (Eric Review, 2000). Behavior management programs concentrate on changing behaviors and use feedback or positive or negative reinforcement to change behavior. These strategies generally rely on using a range of cognitive-behavioral approaches to challenge (and ultimately change) maladaptive behavior. One such approach is teaching students to recognize the physiological cues experienced in risky situations and then practicing restraint skills in order to avoid acting impulsively in such situations. Students are given suggestions regarding alternative responses and activities when dealing with friends who propose engaging in a risky activity. They then are taught to use prompts or cues to remember to engage in positive behavior (Gottfredson, 1998).
THEORETICAL CONTEXT
School is one of the primary places where young people interact with their peers, learn to make decisions, and develop a sense of self-identity. Juvenile prevention programs implemented in schools have the potential to offset or confront delinquency at several stages of a child's development (Stovell, 1999). Behavioral techniques and intervention strategies that serve to remediate disruptive behavior may serve to motivate positive changes in students while simultaneously allowing teachers to "regain control" over their classrooms.
Behavioral management techniques often incorporate components of social learning theory (Krisberg et al., 1994; Bandura, 1977). A general theory of human behavior, social learning theory emphasizes the role of symbolic and self-regulatory processes in psychological functioning, holding that human beings learn by observing others (Bandura, 1977). This theory assumes that childhood experiences such as lax or harsh discipline, abuse, neglect, and violence-and even violence observed from sources such as the media-prevent bonding with others and diminish internal self-control (Krisberg et al., 1994).
Bandura has conducted many studies involving observational learning, or modeling. The modeling process includes four steps:
- Attention . For an individual to learn anything, he or she must pay attention to the features of the modeled behavior. Many factors contribute to the amount of attention one pays to the modeled activities, such as the characteristics of both the observer and the person being observed and competing stimuli.
- Retention . To be influenced by the act of observing behaviors, an individual must recall the activities that were modeled at one time or another. Imagery and language aid in this process of retaining information. Humans store the behaviors they observe in the form of mental images or verbal descriptions. They then are able to recall the image or description later to reproduce the activity with their own behavior.
- Reproduction . Reproduction involves converting symbolic representations into appropriate actions. Behavioral reproduction is accomplished by organizing one's own responses in accordance with the modeled pattern. A person's ability to reproduce a behavior improves with practice.
- Motivation . A person must have some incentive to imitate a behavior. This imagined incentive acts as a reinforcer. Negative reinforcers discourage the continuation of the modeled activity.
Bandura views the human personality as an interaction between the environment and a person's psychological processes. He holds further that humans are able to control their behavior through a process known as self-regulation. This process involves three steps:
- Self-observation . Humans look at themselves and their behavior and keep track of their actions.
- Judgment . Humans compare these observations with standards. These standards can be rules set by society or standards that the individual sets for herself.
- Self response . If, after judging herself, the person does well in comparison with the set standards, she will give herself a rewarding self-response. If the person does poorly she then administers a punishing self-response to herself.
CONFLICT RESOLUTION
Delinquency and violence often are considered symptoms of a juvenile's inability to deal constructively with conflict (LeBoeuf and Delany-Shabazz, 1997). In response, conflict resolution and violence prevention curricula are developed to improve students' social, problem-solving, and anger management skills (Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, 1998). These programs provide students with the skills they need to identify interests, express views, and seek mutually acceptable solutions. It has been demonstrated that conflict resolution education can reduce juvenile violence in schools, juvenile facilities, and communities while providing lifelong decision-making skills (LeBoeuf and Delany-Shabazz, 1997). These programs also serve to counteract chronic truancy and in turn reduce the number of suspensions and disciplinary referrals, which reduces staff time spent on discipline.
While a wide variety of risk factors may be addressed through conflict resolution or violence prevention programs, the primary risk factors are early and persistent aggressive or antisocial behavior and association with delinquent or violent peers.
In addition, several protective factors are addressed by such programs, including healthy beliefs and clear standards, and increasing skills to resolve conflict (Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, 1998). Enhancing self-esteem of participants is an added benefit (LeBoeuf and Delany-Shabazz, 1997).
TYPES OF SCHOOL-BASED BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
School-based behavior management interventions are used to improve behavior and achievement. These strategies generally fall into four categories:
- Structured playground activities
- Behavioral consultation
- Behavioral monitoring and reinforcement of attendance, academic progress, and school behavior
- Special educational placements for disruptive, disturbed, and learning-disabled students
Behavioral management techniques are employed under the premise that these acquired behavioral dispositions (attitudes, emotional responses, and new styles of conduct) are not unchangeable.