RISK FACTORS

Risk factors are personal characteristics or environmental conditions scientifically established to increase the likelihood of problem behavior. The risk and protective factor framework suggests that risk factors combine to contribute to and shape problem behavior over the course of adolescent development and, while no single risk factor is more potent than another, the more risk factors present in life, the greater the probability of problem behaviors (Bry, McKeon, and Pandina, 1982; Newcomb, 1995).

Some risk factors are causally related to negative outcomes while others are simply correlated with negative outcomes. They can range from prenatal biological traits to broad environmental conditions that increase an individual's vulnerability to negative developmental outcomes (Small and Luster, 1994). Biological risk traits (e.g., genetic markers) refer to an individual predisposition toward developing a specific problem condition. For example, children born to parents with schizophrenia are more likely than other children to develop symptoms of schizophrenia (Rende and Plomin, 1993). These traits are important to consider because environmental factors can play a triggering role in determining outcomes for individuals at genetic risk. Environmental conditions can have both direct and indirect effects on overall risk. For example, poverty directly affects children by lowering the quality of their food and shelter. It puts parents under constant strain so that they find it difficult to respond consistently to a child's needs.

There is also a cumulative effect of these stressors such that a prolonged exposure to risk factors increases the likelihood of negative outcomes. For example, school failure in early grades may not be associated with antisocial behavior, but it may become related if failure is repeated over a period of time. Consequently, as the number of risk factors increases, the cumulation exerts an increasingly strong influence on children. According to Sterling and colleagues (1985), school adjustment problems associated with a stressful life event, such as moving or death of a parent, worsened when another stressful event or circumstance arose concurrently.

Risk factors (as well as protective factors) are organized typically into life domains or spheres of influence, which are loosely identified by relational proximity, starting with the individual and extending outward in concentric circles to the community.

Individual

The factors in this sphere are identified as those individual behaviors or characteristics that affect risk of, or resistance to, engaging in violent behavior. The risk and protective factors and their indicators unique to the individual sphere are presented below.

Family

The factors in the family sphere of influence typically are related to family structure, support, culture, and functioning and ultimately affect the behavior of the individual members. The risk and protective factors and their indicators unique to the family sphere are presented below.

School

The factors in the school sphere of influence typically are related to school attendance, performance, and attachment. The risk and protective factors and their indicators unique to the school sphere are presented below.

Peer

The factors in the peer sphere of influence are related to peer norms, attachment, socialization, and interaction processes. The risk and protective factors and their indicators unique to the peer sphere are presented below.

Community

The factors in the community sphere of influence are generally related to the physical environment, available economic and recreational opportunities, existing social supports, and other issues that affect successful functioning. The risk and protective factors and their indicators unique to the community sphere are presented below.