|
Risk factors are personal characteristics or environmental conditions scientifically established to increase the likelihood of problem behavior. The risk and protective factor framework suggests that risk factors combine to contribute to and shape
problem behavior over the course of adolescent development and, while no single risk factor is more potent than another, the more risk factors present in life, the greater the probability of problem behaviors (Bry, McKeon, and Pandina, 1982; Newcomb, 1995).
Some risk factors are causally related to negative outcomes while others are simply correlated with negative outcomes. They can range from prenatal biological traits to broad environmental conditions that increase an individual's vulnerability to negative developmental outcomes (Small and Luster, 1994). Biological risk traits (e.g., genetic markers) refer to an individual predisposition toward developing a specific problem condition. For example, children born to parents with schizophrenia are more likely than other children to develop symptoms of schizophrenia (Rende and Plomin, 1993). These traits are important to consider because environmental factors can play a triggering role in determining outcomes for individuals at genetic risk. Environmental conditions can have both direct and indirect effects on overall risk. For example, poverty directly affects children by lowering the quality of their food and shelter. It puts parents under constant strain so that they find it difficult to respond consistently to a child's needs.
There is also a cumulative effect of these stressors such that a prolonged exposure to risk factors increases the likelihood
of negative outcomes. For example, school failure in early grades may not be associated with antisocial behavior, but it may
become related if failure is repeated over a period of time. Consequently, as the number of risk factors increases, the
cumulation exerts an increasingly strong influence on children. According to Sterling and colleagues (1985), school
adjustment problems associated with a stressful life event, such as moving or death of a parent, worsened when another
stressful event or circumstance arose concurrently.
Risk factors (as well as protective factors) are organized typically into life domains or spheres of influence, which are
loosely identified by relational proximity, starting with the individual and extending outward in concentric circles to
the community.
Individual
The factors in this sphere are identified as those individual behaviors or characteristics that affect risk of, or
resistance to, engaging in violent behavior. The risk factors and their indicators unique to the
individual sphere are presented below.
| |
FACTOR |
INDICATOR |
| Risk |
Antisocial Behavior and Alienation |
School disciplinary actions/referrals (school district records)
Students served in programs classified as Behaviorally or Emotionally Handicapped (BEH) (school district reports)
Social adjustment assessments of children referred to city/county social service agencies
Juvenile arrests for vandalism
Juvenile arrests for drug-related offenses
Juvenile arrests for alcohol-related offenses
Juvenile arrests for drug distribution-related offenses
Juvenile/family court referral/adjudication rate
Suicides
Bullying |
| Gun Posession/illegal gun ownership/carrying |
Juvenile weapons/gun violation arrests
Juvenile gun confiscations at school
Self-report of carrying gun |
| Teen Parenthood |
Births to mothers ages 13-19
Adolescent pregnancies ages 0-14
Adolescent pregnancies ages 15-19
Sexual activity among high school students |
| Favorable Attitudes Toward Drug Use/early onset of AOD use/alcohol/drug use. |
Juvenile arrests for alcohol/drug use (local police department)
Juvenile arrests for driving under the influence (local police department)
Juvenile arrests for liquor law violations (local police department)
Juvenile arrests for drug abuse violations (local police department)
Juvenile arrests for drunkenness (local police department)
Positive attitudes toward alcohol or drug abuse (Monitoring the Future Study, Volume 1)
Early initial use of drugs (Monitoring the Future Study, Volume 1)
Annual alcohol use by students (Monitoring the Future Study, Volume 1)
Recent or current use of alcohol/drugs (Monitoring the Future Study, Volume 1)
|
| Early Onset of aggression/Violence |
School disciplinary actions/referrals and mental health referrals for aggression (school and mental health center records)
Child (prior to age 13) court referrals for person offenses (local juvenile/family court records)
School disciplinary actions/referrals (school district records)
Students served in programs classified as Behaviorally or Emotionally Handicapped (BEH)
Social adjustment assessments of children referred to city/county social service agencies (local agency data)
Juvenile arrests for violent crime and serious violent crime |
| Cognitive and neurological deficits/ low intelligence quotient/hyperactive |
Students served in programs classified as Behaviorally or Emotionally Handicapped (BEH) (school district reports)
Standardized intelligence test scores (school district reports)
Learning disabilities (Elementary and Secondary Students: Programs for the Disabled)
Traumatic brain injury (Elementary and Secondary Students: Programs for the Disabled)
Emotional Disturbance (Elementary and Secondary Students: Programs for the Disabled)
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder |
| Victimization and exposure to violence |
Child abuse and neglect rate (Child Protective Services)
Domestic violence arrests and convictions (local police department & criminal court)
Treatment needs assessments of adolescents referred to juvenile/family courts |
| Lack of guilt and empathy |
Students served in programs classified as Behaviorally or Emotionally Handicapped (BEH) (school district reports)
Treatment needs assessments of adolescents referred to juvenile/family courts
Factor- Poor refusal skills (no indicators)
Factor- Chronic medical/physical condition |
| Poor refusal skills |
|
| Chronic medical/physical condition |
Problems among children referred to city/county social service agencies |
Life stressors
|
Failing a course at school (School records)
Being suspended or expelled from school (School records)
Breaking up with a boyfriend/girlfriend (Self-report)
Having a big fight or problem with a friend (Self-report)
Death of someone close |
| Early sexual involvement |
Sexually Transmitted Disease (STD) reports (local health department)
Adolescent/student surveys of sexual activity |
| Mental disorder/mental health problem/conduct disorder |
Students served in programs classified as Behaviorally or Emotionally Handicapped (BEH)
Treatment needs assessments of adolescents referred to juvenile/family courts
Social adjustment assessments of children referred to city/county social service agencies
Juvenile arrest rate for curfew, vandalism, & disorderly conduct
Juvenile/family court referral/adjudication rate for curfew, vandalism, & disorderly conduct
Juvenile detainees diagnosed with depression |
Family
The factors in the family sphere of influence typically are related to family structure, support, culture, and functioning and ultimately affect the behavior of the individual members. The risk factors and their indicators unique to the family sphere are presented below.
| |
FACTOR |
INDICATOR |
| Risk |
Family History of the Problem Behavior |
Adult criminal arrest rate (local police/sheriff department)
Adults in drug treatment programs (Medicaid claims for alcohol and substance
use, state alcohol and other drug treatment agencies, local treatment programs,
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the US)
Parental assessments of children referred to juvenile/family courts (local agency data and city/county social service agencies)
Educational attainment (U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the US)
Low adult literacy (National Adult Literacy Survey)
Pregnant mothers using alcohol (Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System, CDC)
Babies born with fetal alcohol syndrome |
| Family Management Problems/poor parental supervision and/or monitoring |
Arrests for runaway by age 16 (local police department)
Children living outside the family/Placements in foster care facilities (local
department of social services, U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of
the US)
Number of latchkey children among referrals to child welfare agency (local department of social services)
Child abuse and neglect rate (Child Protective Services, U.S. Bureau of
the Census, Statistical Abstract of the US)
Risk & treatment needs assessments of children referred to juvenile/family courts and city/county social service agencies (local agency data)
Parental involvement in child’s school |
| Poor family attachment/bonding |
Risk & treatment needs assessments of children referred to juvenile/family courts
Risk & treatment needs assessments of children referred to city/county social service agencies |
| Child victimization and maltreatment |
Child abuse and neglect rate
Treatment needs assessments of adolescents referred to juvenile/family courts
Unpaid child support
Requests for social service intervention city/county social service agencies |
| Pattern of high family conflict |
911 calls for domestic violence (local police/sheriff department)
Domestic violence arrests (Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics) |
| Family violence |
Murders of intimate others (local police/sheriff department)
Child abuse rate (Child Protective Services)
Protective Orders Written (Child Protective Services) |
| Having a young mother |
Births to mothers age 13 to 19 (state or local health departments) |
| Broken home |
Children in neighborhoods with a high rate of female-headed families
Proportion of children in non-intact families referred to juvenile/family courts and city/county social service agencies
Divorce rate for parents with children under age 18
Children with one or more parents in jail/prison
Placements in foster care facilities
Number of latchkey children among referrals to child welfare agency |
| Sibling antisocial behavior |
Risk & treatment needs assessments of children referred to juvenile/family courts and city/county social service agencies |
| Family transitions |
Divorce rate (county clerk or recorder, U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical
Abstract of the US)
Change of custody orders (local juvenile/family court, local child welfare agency) |
| Parental use of physical punishment/harsh and/or erratic discipline practices |
Reports to CPS of harsh physical punishment (Child Protective Services) |
| Low parent education level/illiteracy |
Education level of parents (school district reports)
Families eligible for Free and Reduced Lunch Program (State Welfare Agency)
Families on Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (State Welfare Agency)
Food Stamp Program Recipients |
| Maternal depression |
Risk & treatment needs assessments of parents of children referred to juvenile/family courts and city/county social service agencies (local agencies) |
School
The factors in the school sphere of influence typically are related to school attendance, performance, and attachment. The risk factors and their indicators unique to the school sphere are presented below.
| |
FACTOR |
INDICATOR |
| Risk |
Low academic achievement |
Performance composite of public schools (school district reports)
End of year testing/competency exams by grade (school district reports)
Reading proficiency by grade (school district reports, Digest of Education Statistics)
Math proficiency by grade (school district reports, Digest of Education Statistics)
Science proficiency by grade |
Negative attitude toward school/ Low bonding/ low school attachment /commitment to school
|
Number of GED diplomas
Completion of four years of high school |
| Truancy/frequent absences |
Truancy rate
Chronic Absenteeism |
| Suspension |
Suspension rate |
| Dropping out of school |
School dropout rate
Event dropout rate (the proportion of all students enrolled in school at the
beginning of a 12-month period who leave school by the end of that 12-month
period without graduating )
Status dropout rate (proportion of the population 16 to 24 years of age who are
not enrolled in high school and have not graduated) |
| Inadequate school climate/ poorly organized and functioning schools/negative labeling by teachers |
Large classes
Graduation rates
High dropout rate
Excessive zero tolerance punishments
Excessive suspensions and expulsions
Reports of corporal punishment in schools
Disruptive/dangerous school environment (suspensions & expulsions for fighting)
Teacher exposure to teacher abuse by students
Violence/crime in schools
Teacher attitudes/job satisfaction
Physical decay of schools
Under-funded schools |
| Identified as learning disabled |
Enrollments in Special Education/Exceptional student programs
Low academic aspirations
Low parent college expectations for child
Frequent school transitions
New students and transfers |
Peer
The factors in the peer sphere of influence are related to peer norms, attachment, socialization, and interaction processes.
The risk factors and their indicators unique to the peer sphere are presented below.
| |
FACTOR |
INDICATOR |
| Risk |
Gang Involvement/gang membership |
Presence of documented gangs
Documentation of gang membership or association
Perceived peer gang involvement |
| Peer ATOD use |
Alcohol, tobacco, and other drug use rate (local studies & YRBS survey)
Violent friends |
| Association with delinquent/aggressive peers |
Documentation of friends/associates |
| Peer Rejection |
Self-admission of peer rejection |
Community
The factors in the community sphere of influence are generally related to the physical environment, available economic and recreational opportunities, existing social supports, and other issues that affect successful functioning. The risk factors and their indicators unique to the community sphere are presented below.
| |
FACTOR |
INDICATOR |
| Risk |
Availability/use of alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs in neighborhood |
Juvenile/adult arrests for drug abuse violations
Adolescent/student surveys of drug use
Total alcoholic beverage sales by location
Trends in exposure to drug use
Perceived availability of drugs |
| Availability of firearms |
Juvenile arrests for weapons law violations
Adult arrests for weapons law violations
Illegal gun confiscations
Firearms in homes of adults
Firearm sales
Gun Licenses/Permits Issued
|
| High-crime neighborhood |
Juvenile arrest/adjudication rate
Adult arrest/conviction rate for weapons-related charges
Adult arrest/conviction rate for violent crimes
Adult arrest/conviction rate for DUI
Adult arrest/conviction rate for drug-related charges
Adult arrest/conviction rate for alcohol-related charges
Adult arrest/conviction rate for property crimes
Presence of documented gangs
Alcohol-related traffic fatalities
Use of weapons in murders
Murder rate |
| Community instability |
Unemployment rate
Net migration rate
Rental residential properties as proportion of all housing
Non-enforcement of building violations/condemned buildings
Frequent moves of families with children
New home construction
Home ownership rates
Property vacancy |
| Low community attachment |
Prevalence of homeless families/individuals
Population voting in Congressional or Presidential elections |
| Economic deprivation/poverty/ residence in a disadvantaged neighborhood |
Median family income
Unemployment rate
Families/persons/children living below poverty level (U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the U.S.)
Families on Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (State Welfare Agency,
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the U.S.)
Food Stamp Program Recipients (State Welfare Agency, U.S. Bureau of
the Census, Statistical Abstract of the U.S.)
Families eligible for Free and Reduced Lunch Program (State Welfare Agency,
U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the U.S.)
Female family householder with no spouse present (U.S. Bureau of
the Census, Statistical Abstract of the U.S.)
Children in working poor families (Kids Count Data Book)
Individuals/children without health insurance (U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the U.S) |
| Neighborhood youth in trouble |
Juvenile overall arrest rate (local police department)
Juvenile/family court referral/adjudication rate |
| Feeling unsafe in the neighborhood |
Juvenile violent crime
Juvenile/adult violent crime/ homicide arrests (local police/sheriff department)
Presence of documented gangs |
Social and physical disorder/disorganized neighborhood
|
Poor external housing conditions (local Housing and Urban Development office, U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the U.S)
Graffiti, vandalism, & littering (local police/sheriff department)
Un-repaired homes (photographs)
Hate crimes (local police/sheriff department)
Broken light fixtures in public halls (U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the U.S)
Absence of Neighborhood Watch organizations (local police/sheriff department)
Non-enforcement of building code violations/condemned buildings (city/county government agency)
Projection of homeless families (National Coalition for the Homeless)
Public Drunkenness |
By integrating the risk and protective models, the new Title V delinquency prevention model can more adequately identify at-risk youths and then provide them with methods of healthy development to combat the likelihood of developing problem behaviors.
|
