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Afterschool/Recreation
The hours between the end of the school day and when parents return from work is a risky time for young people. In contrast to the statistics for adults, serious violent crime committed by juveniles increases during the hours immediately after school. “In general, the number of violent crimes committed by adults increases hourly from 6 a.m. through the afternoon and evening hours, peaks at 11 p.m., and then drops to a low point at 6 a.m.,” according to Snyder and Sickmund (1999). “In stark contrast, violent crimes by juveniles peak in the afternoon between 3 p.m. and 4 p.m., the hour at the end of the school day.” This same research reports that “19 percent of all juvenile violent crimes occur in the 4 hours between 3 p.m. and 7 p.m. on school days.” Moreover, a comparison of the crime patterns for school and nonschool days finds that the 3 p.m. peak occurs only on school days (Snyder and Sickmund, 1999).
Juveniles are also at the highest risk of being victimized during this critical period. Recent analyses of the FBI National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) data indicates that juveniles are at the highest risk of being the victims of violent crime in the 4 hours following the end of the school day (roughly 2–6 p.m.). In fact, victimization surveys find that even more delinquent acts occur between noon and 6 p.m. (which includes the hours after school) than indicated by the NIBRS data. For example, the National Crime Victimization Survey indicates that “half (51 percent) of all robberies occur between noon and 6 p.m., while the police data show that only 32 percent of juvenile robberies occurred during this period” (Snyder and Sickmund, 1999).
This dramatic temporal discrepancy in delinquent activity is likely due to children returning after the school bell to homes with in little or no supervision, because their parents are at work. Research findings estimate that 35 percent of 12-year-olds are left by themselves regularly while their parents are at work. In fact, the gap between parent work schedules and child school schedules can total 20 to 25 hours per week (U.S. Department of Justice, 2000). This unsupervised time is a risk factor for serious and violent behavior among youths. The evidence supports the proposition that children “who are unsupervised during the hours after school are more likely to use alcohol, drugs, tobacco . . . , receive poor grades, and drop out of school than those children who have the opportunity to benefit from constructive activities supervised by responsible adults” (U.S. Department of Justice, 2000). Moreover, Gottfredson, Gottfredson, and Weisman (2001) find that youths who are unsupervised during afterschool hours are found to be more delinquent at all times and not only after school.
Because the hours directly after school can be so dangerous for school-aged children, delinquency prevention programs should be used to reduce the probability of these incidences. Quality afterschool programs are widely supported as a buffer against the danger of delinquency. Nearly 100 percent of those polled agreed that it is important for children to have an afterschool program that helps them develop academic and social skills in a safe, caring environment (U.S. Department of Justice, 2000). But despite this support, there is a lack of affordable, accessible afterschool opportunities in many communities. For instance, in some urban areas, the supply of afterschool programs was expected to meet only about 20 percent of the demand by 2002 (GAO/HEHS, 1997).
THEORETICAL CONTEXT
Quality afterschool programs that reduce risk factors and increase protective factors for the youths served can offer a host of intriguing and rewarding experiences for youths and their families. Afterschool programs keep children of all ages safe and out of trouble because they meet family needs by providing responsible adult supervision of children during nonschool hours. They also offer rewarding, challenging, and age-appropriate activities in a safe, structured, positive environment. In fact, research has identified three major functions provided by afterschool programs. They 1) provide supervision, 2) offer enriching experiences and positive social interaction, and 3) improve academic achievement (Fashola, 1999). As a result of these functions, studies indicate that afterschool programs can
■ Improve students’ social skills
■ Improve their self-confidence
■ Improve their homework quality
■ Give them higher aspirations
■ Enhance their academic achievement
■ Increase their interest and ability in reading
■ Encourage them to develop new skills and interests
■ Improve school attendance and reduce dropout rate
■ Prevent negative influences that lead to risky behaviors
■ Increase family and community involvement with children
■ Reduce grade retention and placement in special education
■ Prevent crime, juvenile delinquency, and violent victimization
EVIDENCE OF IMPACT
Afterschool programs come in all shapes, sizes, and modalities, and there is no single formula for their success. Some programs concentrate on recreational activities. Others address academics or cultural enrichment. Some of the best programs are traditional scholastic extracurricular activities. Research indicates that scholastic extracurricular activities have numerous social benefits. For example, Mahoney and Cairns (1997) and McNeal (1995) find that extracurricular participation is related to a decrease in school dropouts, particularly during the early years of high school and for high-risk youth. Gerber (1996) found that extracurricular participation is not detrimental to student performance and that participation in such activities promotes greater academic achievement. Mahoney (1997) found a link between participation in extracurricular activities and reduced rates of criminal offending. Youniss, Yates, and Su (1997) find that adolescents involved in a broad range of activities report lower levels of substance abuse. Finally, Eccles and Baber (1999) find that participation in prosocial activities of any kind is linked to positive educational trajectories in middle to late adolescent development and to low rates of involvement in risky behavior.
Specifically, interscholastic athletic participation has been demonstrated to produce prosocial outcomes. This research suggests that, compared with non-athletes, individuals who participate in athletics have higher educational aspirations (Braddock, 1981; Holland and Andre, 1987; Otto, 1982; Picou and Curry, 1974; Otto and Alvin, 1977; Snyder and Spreitzer, 1977) and higher self-esteem (Braddock, 1981; Hanks, 1979) and achieve greater educational attainment (Anderson, 1998). They also show increased academic performance (Silliker and Quirk, 1997; Gerber, 1996), are less likely to drop out of school (McNeal, 1995; Melnick, Sabo, and Vanfossen, 1992), and have increased earnings when they enter the work world (Ewing, 1995; Long and Caudill, 1991).
Other than traditional interscholastic programs, practitioners and researchers find that the best afterschool programs combine several different activities. For instance, an evaluation of the Quantum Opportunities Program—a year-round program that provides a balanced sequence of educational, development, and service opportunities to small groups of youths from families—find that the participants had more positive outcomes in educational attainment and social achievement (Hahn et al., 1994). In addition, Gottfredson, Gottfredson, and Weisman (2001) argue that factors such as social competencies, social bonding, and inadequate supervision produce delinquency during afterschool hours and that the effectiveness of afterschool programs for reducing delinquency will depend on their ability to address these other factors.
Specifically, the types of activities found in a quality afterschool programs include
■ Mentoring
■ Computer instruction
■ Homework assistance centers
■ College awareness and preparation
■ Activities linked to law enforcement
■ Employment preparation or training
■ Courses and enrichment in culture and the arts
■ Volunteer and community service opportunities
■ Drug and violence prevention curricula and counseling
■ Supervised recreation and athletic programs and events
■ Language instruction, including English as a second language
■ Youth leadership activities (e.g., Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, academic clubs)
■ Tutoring and supplementing instruction in basic skills, such as reading, math, and science [U.S. Department of Justice, 2000]
Poor programs, by contrast, allow children to spend far too much time in passive activities such as watching television or movies. They also exhibit poor facilities, staff, or both. Research demonstrates that successful afterschool programs have several common elements:
■ Goal setting and string management: Programs need to set and communicate goals from the beginning, develop a solid organizational structure, and be managed effectively.
■ Quality staffing: Staffing arrangements vary according to a program’s size, management structure, and goals. But all programs need staff who are qualified and committed, have appropriate experience, have realistic expectations, and can interact productively with regular school staff—whether the program is school-based or not.
■ Attention to safety: Programs should be safe, close to home, and accessible to all children and youth who want to participate. They should have adequate space for a variety of indoor and outdoor activities. Safe transit can be provided through means such as public transportation, staff escorts, and crossing guards.
■ Effective partnerships with community-based organizations: Implementing quality afterschool program activities requires collaboration among diverse partners—not only parents and educators but also community residents, law enforcement agencies, service providers, community-based and civic organizations (e.g., the United Way, YWCAs, YMCAs, Girl Scouts, Boy Scouts, Junior Achievement, Boys and Girls Clubs), colleges, employers, arts and cultural institutions, museums, park and recreation services, and public officials. Effective programs aim to draw on all of a community’s diverse resources, including the participation of children and youths in program planning, to best address the concerns of the entire community.
■ Strong family involvement: Thirty years of research shows the level of difference family involvement makes in children’s learning and chances for adult success. Family involvement in afterschool programs is just as important. The success of an afterschool program depends on the involvement of both families and the community.
■ Enriching learning opportunities: By providing structured enriching learning opportunities, afterschool programs can be a vital resource for improving academic performance, as well as for meeting social, emotional, and physical development needs.
■ Linkages between school-day and afterschool personnel: Quality programs support and coordinate their activities with the school in a way that supports true partnership. In those afterschool programs physically housed in school buildings, there is the opportunity to link together school-day and afterschool personnel and resources in a seamless continuum of activities that concentrate on the well-being and growth of participants.
■ Evaluation of program progress and effectiveness: Afterschool programs are, by nature, varied and complex. No matter how well designed they are, programs must also take into account experience. Effective afterschool programs have a continual evaluation component built into their design, so program planners can objectively gauge their success based on the clear goals set for the program. [U.S. Department of Justice, 2000]
References
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